Basic Electronic Devices

By RITESH SAINI ECE

RESISTORS

The electronic component known as the resistor is best described as electrical friction. Pretend, for a moment, that electricity travels through hollow pipes like water. Assume two pipes are filled with water and one pipe has very rough walls. It would be easy to say that it is more difficult to push the water through the rough-walled pipe than through a pipe with smooth walls. The pipe with rough walls could be described as having more resistance to movement than the smooth one.

Pioneers in the field of electronics thought electricity was some type of invisible fluid that could flow through certain materials easily, but had difficulty flowing through other materials. In a way they were correct since the movement of electrons through a material cannot be seen by the human eye, even with the best microscopes made. There is a similarity between the movement of electrons in wires and the movement of water in the pipes. For example, if the pressure on one end of a water pipe is increased, the amount of water that will pass through the pipe will also increase. The pressure on the other end of the pipe will be indirectly related to the resistance the pipe has to the flow of water. In other words, the pressure at the other end of the pipe will decrease if the resistance of the pipe increases.

Electrons flow through materials when a pressure (called voltage in electronics) is placed on one end of the material forcing the electrons to “react” with each other until the ones on the other end of the material move out. Some materials hold on to their electrons more than others making it more difficult for the electrons to move. These materials have a higher resistance to the flow of electricity (called current in electronics) than the ones that allow electrons to move easily. Therefore, early experimenters called the materials insulators if they had very high resistance to electron flow and conductors if they had very little resistance to electron flow. Later materials that offered a medium amount of resistance were classified as semiconductors.

When a person designs a circuit in electronics, it is often necessary to limit the amount of electrons or current that will move through that circuit each second. This is similar to the way a faucet limits the amount of water that will enter a glass each second. It would be very difficult to fill a glass without breaking it if the faucet had only two states, wide open or off. By using the proper value of resistance in an electronic circuit designers can limit the pressure placed on a device and thus prevent it from being damaged or destroyed.

SUMMARY: The resistor is an electronic component that has electrical friction. This friction opposes the flow of electrons and thus reduces the voltage (pressure) placed on other electronic components by restricting the amount of current that can pass through it.

Capacitors

A capacitor (originally known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example, one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film. Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio of theelectric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.

The capacitance is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor, hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates," referring to an early means of construction. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.

Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in theresonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies, in electric power transmission systems for stabilizing voltage and power flow, and for many other purposes.

Overview

Charge separation in a parallel-plate capacitor causes an internal electric field. A dielectric (orange) reduces the field and increases the capacitance.

A capacitor consists of two conductors separated by a non-conductive region. The non-conductive region is called the dielectric. In simpler terms, the dielectric is just an electrical insulator. Examples of dielectric media are glass, air, paper, vacuum, and even a semiconductor depletion region chemically identical to the conductors. A capacitor is assumed to be self-contained and isolated, with no net electric charge and no influence from any external electric field. The conductors thus hold equal and opposite charges on their facing surfaces, and the dielectric develops an electric field. In SI units, a capacitance of one farad means that one coulomb of charge on each conductor causes a voltage of one volt across the device.

The capacitor is a reasonably general model for electric fields within electric circuits. An ideal capacitor is wholly characterized by a constant capacitance C, defined as the ratio of charge ±Q on each conductor to the voltage V between them:

C=Q/V

Sometimes charge build-up affects the capacitor mechanically, causing its capacitance to vary. In this case, capacitance is defined in terms of incremental changes:

C=dq/dv

Inductors

An inductor (also choke, coil or reactor) is a passive two-terminal electrical component that stores energy in its magnetic field. For comparison, a capacitor stores energy in an electric field, and a resistor does not store energy but rather dissipates energy as heat.

Any conductor has inductance. An inductor is typically made of a wire or other conductor wound into a coil, to increase the magnetic field.

When the current flowing through an inductor changes, creating a time-varying magnetic field inside the coil, a voltage is induced, according to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in current that created it. Inductors are one of the basic components used in electronics where current and voltage change with time, due to the ability of inductors to delay and reshape alternating currents.

Overview

Inductance (L) results from the magnetic field forming around a current-carrying conductor which tends to resist changes in the current. Electric current through the conductor creates a magnetic flux proportional to the current. A change in this current creates a corresponding change in magnetic flux which, in turn, by Faraday's law generates an electromotive force (EMF) that opposes this change in current. Inductance is a measure of the amount of EMF generated per unit change in current. For example, an inductor with an inductance of 1 henry produces an EMF of 1 volt when the current through the inductor changes at the rate of 1 ampere per second. The number of loops, the size of each loop, and the material it is wrapped around all affect the inductance. For example, the magnetic flux linking these turns can be increased by coiling the conductor around a material with a high permeability such as iron.

      Diodes

         

        Avalanche diodes

Diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes, and are often mistakenly called Zener diodes, but break down by a different mechanism, the avalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the p–n junction causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current. Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of opposite polarities.

   Cat’s whisker or crystal diodes

These are a type of point-contact diode. The cat’s whisker diode consists of a thin or sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat’s whisker diodes were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers. Cat’s whisker diodes are generally obsolete, but may be available from a few manufacturers.^{[citation needed]}

Constant current diodes

These are actually a JFET with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a two-terminal current-limiter analog to the Zener diode, which is limiting voltage. They allow a current through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating diodes.

        Esaki or tunnel diodes

These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum tunneling,allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Due to the high carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures, high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments. Because of these properties, they are often used in spacecraft.

        Gunn diodes

These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to be built.

        Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)

In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the other side. Depending on the material,wavelengths (or colors)^[16] from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced.^[17] The forward potential of these diodes depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 2.1 V corresponds to red, 4.0 V to violet. The first LEDs were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually combinations of three LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.

        Laser diodes

When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high speed optical communication.

        Thermal diodes

This term is used both for conventional p–n diodes used to monitor temperature due to their varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps for thermoelectric heating and cooling.. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductor, though they do not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behaviour of charge carriers in N and P type semiconductor to move heat.

        Photodiodes

All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material. Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photodetector), so they are packaged in materials that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light).^[18] A photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a two-dimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.

        PIN diodes

A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type structure. They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used as large volume ionizing radiation detectors and asphotodetectors. PIN diodes are also used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore, the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs, power MOSFETs, and thyristors.

        Schottky diodes

Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower forward voltage drop than p–n junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier storage problems that slow down many other diodes — so they have a faster reverse recovery than p–n junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.

             

       Super barrier diodes

Super barrier diodes are rectifier diodes that incorporate the low forward voltage drop of the Schottky diode with the surge-handling capability and low reverse leakage current of a normal p–n junction diode.

        Gold-doped diodes

As a dopant, gold (or platinum) acts as recombination centers, which helps a fast recombination of minority carriers. This allows the diode to operate at signal frequencies, at the expense of a higher forward voltage drop. Gold-doped diodes are faster than other p–n diodes (but not as fast as Schottky diodes). They also have less reverse-current leakage than Schottky diodes (but not as good as other p–n diodes). A typical example is the 1N914.

        Snap-off or Step recovery diodes

The term step recovery relates to the form of the reverse recovery characteristic of these devices. After a forward current has been passing in an SRD and the current is interrupted or reversed, the reverse conduction will cease very abruptly (as in a step waveform). SRDs can, therefore, provide very fast voltage transitions by the very sudden disappearance of the charge carriers.

        Stabistors or Forward Reference Diodes

The term stabistor refers to a special type of diodes featuring extremely stable forward voltage characteristics. These devices are specially designed for low-voltage stabilization applications requiring a guaranteed voltage over a wide current range and highly stable over temperature.

        Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS)

These are avalanche diodes designed specifically to protect other semiconductor devices from high-voltage transients.Their p–n junctions have a much larger cross-sectional area than those of a normal diode, allowing them to conduct large currents to ground without sustaining damage.

        Varicap or varactor diodes

These are used as voltage-controlled capacitors. These are important in PLL (phase-locked loop) and FLL (frequency-locked loop) circuits, allowing tuning circuits, such as those in television receivers, to lock quickly. They also enabled tunable oscillators in early discrete tuning of radios, where a cheap and stable, but fixed-frequency, crystal oscillator provided the reference frequency for a voltage-controlled oscillator.

       Zerner diodes

Diodes that can be made to conduct backward. This effect, called Zener breakdown, occurs at a precisely defined voltage, allowing the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference. In practical voltage reference circuits, Zener and switching diodes are connected in series and opposite directions to balance the temperature coefficient to near-zero. Some devices labeled as high-voltage Zener diodes are actually avalanche diodes (see above). Two (equivalent) Zeners in series and in reverse order, in the same package, constitute a transient absorber (or Transorb, a registered trademark). The Zener diode is named for Dr. Clarence Melvin Zener of Carnegie Mellon University, inventor of the device.

Control Process

By Akshay CSE 2

Controlling is ones of the managerial functions like planning, organizing, staffing and directing. It is an important function because it helps to check the errors and to take the corrective action so that deviation from standards are minimized and stated goals of the organization are achieved in desired manner.
According to modern concepts, control is a foreseeing action whereas earlier concept of control was used only when errors were detected. Control in management means setting standards, measuring actual performance and taking corrective action

Definitions

According to Henri Fayol,

Control of an undertaking consists of seeing that everything is being carried out in accordance with the plan which has been adopted, the orders which have been given, and the principles which have been laid down. Its object is to point out mistakes in order that they may be rectified and prevented from recurring.

According to EFL Breach,

Control is checking current performance against pre-determined standards contained in the plans, with a view to ensure adequate progress and satisfactory performance.

According to Harold Koontz,

Controlling is the measurement and correction of performance in order to make sure that enterprise objectives and the plans devised to attain them are accomplished.

According to Stafford Beer,

Management is the profession of control.

Characteristics of Control

§  Control is a continuous process

§  Control is a management process

§  Control is embedded in each level of organizational hierarchy

§  Control is forward looking

§  Control is closely linked with planning

§  Control is a tool for achieving organizational activities

§  Control is an end process

§   

The essential elements of any control process are 
• Establishment of Standards 
• Measurement 
• Comparing performance with the standards 
• Taking corrective actions

Establishment of Standards is the first step in control process. Standards represent criteria for performance. A standard acts as reference line or a basis of appraisal of actual performance. Standards should be set precisely and preferable in quantitative terms. Setting standard is closely linked and is and integral part of the planning process. Standards are used or bench marks by which performance is measured in the control operations at the planning stage, planning is the basis of control.

Measurement of Performance After establishing the standards, the second step is to measure actual performance of various individuals, groups or units. Management should not depend upon the guess that standards are being met measurement of performance against standards should ideally be done on a forward looking basis so that deviations may be detected in advance of their occurrence and avoided by appropriate actions.

Comparing Performance with Standards Appraisal of performance or comparing of actual performance with pre-determined standards is an important step in control process. 
Comparison is easy where standards have been set in quantitative terms as in production and marketing. In other cases, where results are intangible and cannot be measured quantitatively direct personal observations, inspection and reports are few methods which can be used for evaluation. The evaluation will reveal some deviations from the set standards. The evaluator should point out defect or deficiencies in performance and investigate the causes responsible for these.

Taking Corrective Actions Managers should know exactly where in the assignment of individual or group duties, the corrective action must be applied. Managers may correct deviations by redrawing their plans or by modifying their goals. Or they may correct deviations by exercising their organizing functions through reassignment or clarification of duties. They may correct, also, by additional stapling or better selection and training of subordinates.

The control process involves carefully collecting information about a system, process, person, or group of people in order to make necessary decisions about each. Managers set up control systems that consist of four key steps:

1.      Establish standards to measure performance. Within an organization's overall strategic plan, managers define goals for organizational departments in specific, operational terms that include standards of performance to compare with organizational activities.

2.      Measure actual performance. Most organizations prepare formal reports of performance measurements that managers review regularly. These measurements should be related to the standards set in the first step of the control process. For example, if sales growth is a target, the organization should have a means of gathering and reporting sales data.

3.      Compare performance with the standards. This step compares actual activities to performance standards. When managers read computer reports or walk through their plants, they identify whether actual performance meets, exceeds, or falls short of standards. Typically, performance reports simplify such comparison by placing the performance standards for the reporting period alongside the actual performance for the same period and by computing the variance—that is, the difference between each actual amount and the associated standard.

4.      Take corrective actions. When performance deviates from standards, managers must determine what changes, if any, are necessary and how to apply them. In the productivity and quality-centered environment, workers and managers are often empowered to evaluate their own work. After the evaluator determines the cause or causes of deviation, he or she can take the fourth step—corrective action. The most effective course may be prescribed by policies or may be best left up to employees' judgment and initiative.

These steps must be repeated periodically until the organizational goal is achieved.

Kinds of control

Control may be grouped according to three general classifications:

(1) the nature of the information flow designed into the system (that is, open- or closed-loop control), (2) the kind of components included in the design (that is man or machine control systems)

(3) the relationship of control to the decision process (that is, organizational or operational control).

Open- and Closed-Loop Control

A street-lighting system controlled by a timing device is an example of an open-loop system. At a certain time each evening, a mechanical device closes the circuit and energy flows through the electric lines to light the lamps. Note, however, that the timing mechanism is an independent unit and is not measuring the objective function of the lighting system. If the lights should be needed on a dark, stormy day the timing device would not recognize this need and therefore would not activate energy inputs. Corrective properties may sometimes be built into the controller (for example, to modify the time the lights are turned on as the days grow shorter or longer), but this would not close the loop. In another instance, the sensing, comparison, or adjustment may be made through action taken by an individual who is not part of the system. For example, the lights may be turned on by someone who happens to pass by and recognizes the need for additional light.

If control is exercised as a result of the operation rather than because of outside or predetermined arrangements, it is a closed-loop system. The home thermostat is the classic example of a control device in a closed-loop system. When the room temperature drops below the desired point, the control mechanism closes the circuit to start the furnace and the temperature rises. The furnace-activating circuit is turned off as the temperature reaches the preselected level. The significant difference between this type of system and an open-loop system is that the control device is an element of the system it serves and measures the performance of the system. In other words, all four control elements are integral to the specific system.

Man and Machine Control

The elements of control are easy to identify in machine systems. For example, the characteristic to be controlled might be some variable like speed or temperature, and the sensing device could be a speedometer or a thermometer. An expectation of precision exists because the characteristic is quantifiable and the standard and the normal variation to be expected can be described in exact terms. In automatic machine systems, inputs of information are used in a process of continual adjustment to achieve output specifications. When even a small variation from the standard occurs, the correction process begins. The automatic system is highly structured, designed to accept certain kinds of input and produce specific output, and programmed to regulate the transformation of inputs within a narrow range of variation.^[6]

For an illustration of mechanical control, as the load on a steam engine increases and the engine starts to slow down, the regulator reacts by opening a valve that releases additional inputs of steam energy. This new input returns the engine to the desired number of revolutions per minute. This type of mechanical control is crude in comparison to the more sophisticated electronic control systems in everyday use. Consider the complex missile-guidance systems that measure the actual course according to predetermined mathematical calculations and make almost instantaneous corrections to direct the missile to its target.

Machine systems can be complex because of the sophisticated technology, whereas control of people is complex because the elements of control are difficult to determine. In human control systems, the relationship between objectives and associated characteristics is often vague; the measurement of the characteristic may be extremely subjective; the expected standard is difficult to define; and the amount of new inputs required is impossible to quantify. To illustrate, let us refer once more to a formalized social system in which deviant behavior is controlled through a process of observed violation of the existing law (sensing), court hearings and trials (comparison with standard), incarceration when the accused is found guilty (correction), and release from custody after rehabilitation of the prisoner has occurred.^[6]

The speed limit established for freeway driving is one standard of performance that is quantifiable, but even in this instance, the degree of permissible variation and the amount of the actual variation are often a subject of disagreement between the patrolman and the suspected violator. The complexity of our society is reflected in many of our laws and regulations, which establish the general standards for economic, political, and social operations. A citizen may not know or understand the law and consequently would not know whether or not he was guilty of a violation

 

 

 

 

 

Organizational and Operational Control

The concept of organizational control is implicit in the bureaucratic theory of Max Weber. Associated with this theory are such concepts as "span of control", "closeness of supervision", and "hierarchical authority". Weber's view tends to include all levels or types of organizational control as being the same. More recently, writers have tended to differentiate the control process between that which emphasizes the nature of the organizational or systems design and that which deals with daily operations. To illustrate the difference, we "evaluate" the performance of a system to see how effective and efficient the design proved to be or to discover why it failed. In contrast, we operate and "control" the system with respect to the daily inputs of material, information, and energy. In both instances, the elements of feedback are present, but organizational control tends to review and evaluate the nature and arrangement of components in the system, whereas operational control tends to adjust the daily inputs.

The direction for organizational control comes from the goals and strategic plans of the organization. General plans are translated into specific performance measures such as share of the market,earnings, return on investment, and budgets. The process of organizational control is to review and evaluate the performance of the system against these established norms. Rewards for meeting or exceeding standards may range from special recognition to salary increases or promotions. On the other hand, a failure to meet expectations may signal the need to reorganize or redesign.^[7]

In organizational control, the approach used in the program of review and evaluation depends on the reason for the evaluation — that is, is it because the system is not effective (accomplishing its objectives)? Is the system failing to achieve an expected standard of efficiency? Is the evaluation being conducted because of a breakdown or failure in operations? Is it merely a periodic audit-and-review process?

When a system has failed or is in great difficulty, special diagnostic techniques may be required to isolate the trouble areas and to identify the causes of the difficulty. It is appropriate to investigate areas that have been troublesome before or areas where some measure of performance can be quickly identified. For example, if an organization's output backlog builds rapidly, it is logical to check first to see if the problem is due to such readily obtainable measures as increased demand or to a drop in available man hours. When a more detailed analysis is necessary, a systematic procedure should be followed.^[7]

In contrast to organizational control, operational control serves to regulate the day-to-day output relative to schedules, specifications, and costs. Is the output of product or service the properquality and is it available as scheduled? Are inventories of raw materials, goods-in-process, and finished products being purchased and produced in the desired quantities? Are the costs associated with the transformation process in line with cost estimates? Is the information needed in the transformation process available in the right form and at the right time? Is the energy resource being utilized efficiently?

Communication Barriers

By Shiwani 

Although the primary goal of communication is for the receiver to interpret the message as the sender intended, frequently this goal is not achieved.  Communication barriers are obstacles to the communication process.  Learning to recognize external and internal communication barriers will help you plan your messages and become a more effective communicator.

External Barriers

Conditions outside the receiver and the sender that detract from the communication process are called external barriers.  Examples include environmental factors, such as lighting, heat, humidity, comfort, and noise.

The appearance of a written document also may be an external barrier to communication.  A document can create an external barrier it is smudged, contains error in content, spelling, grammar, or is presented in an inappropriate format.  You could become so distracted with the appearance of the document that you fail to comprehend its contents.

Another external barrier to communication within an organization is a “closed or authoritarian climate.”  In such an environment, decisions and policies often are made and implemented by command.  Consequently, workers may stop offering suggestions because they may feel that making suggestions is useless.

Internal Barriers

People have different personalities, educational backgrounds, experiences, cultures, statuses, and biases.  These differences can result in internal barriers that affect a sender’s willingness and ability to express messages and a receiver’s ability to interpret them accurately.

In meetings, extroverts (outward, outspoken, and outgoing individuals) are apt to express ideas and appear to be very knowledgeable.  Introverts (inward, quiet, and shy individuals) may not express their opinions until someone asks for them.  One-to-one conversation is easier for extroverts than introverts.  To avoid becoming a communication barrier, extroverts need to make sure they think before they speak.  For introverts to avoid becoming a barrier, they need to make sure they speak.

Another internal barrier to communication can be the motivation or interests of the receiver.  If the receiver is interested in the topic or project, he or she will listen and probably participate in any discussion.  If he or she is not interested, he or she may not listen or participate.

Which type of barrier, internal or external, is each of the following?

1. The receiver is sick.

2. The room is so hot that it distracts the listener.

3. The street noise is so loud the listener cannot hear the radio.

4. The reader cannot concentrate because of a personal problem.

5. The reader thinks the letter contains too many spelling and grammar errors.

Ten Barriers to Effective Communication

Description

As a business coach and mentor working in the Midlands and London, I am constantly helping business owners and directors with the ways they communicate and what the barriers are. People think that just because we talk, we think people hear but unfortunately this is not the case. Communication is of course how we talk to ourselves and with other people. This article talks about the ten different areas involved and how you can improve dramatically the way we communicate.

After reading this tip sheet, you will:

learn the importance of each barrier to communication

recognise that people don’t hear the same thing that has been spoken

understand that we are so much in our own heads that we have little time, energy or emotion left for listening

realise that due to more and more external chatter from radios, mobiles and traffic, good communication is getting harder and harder

receive huge amounts of information when you communicate effectively

Ten Barriers to Effective Communication

There are many barriers to good communication mainly because every one of us hears, translates what we hear and acts upon the information received in different ways. The challenge for the communicator is to remember this at all times when s/he is communicating (transmitting) the message. This challenge is often bad enough on a one-to-one basis but it is made more difficult when dealing with a crowd of people.

Here are some pointers to help improve your communication:-

Differences in Perception

Each person views the world in different ways based on past experience, age, nationality, culture, education, occupation, sex, status and personality. Individual perception of the world interprets situations in different ways. These differences can often be at the root of many communication difficulties – see also the article on Different Behaviour Spectrums.

Jumping to Conclusions

There are five basic differences to what has been said or written for the person who is transmitting and the person who is receiving the communication: -

People see or hear what they want to see or hear,

People see or hear what they expect to see or hear,

People see or hear what they think they saw or heard

People see or hear what they actually saw or heard

People see or hear what their brain tells them they have seen or heard.

This is often in direct contrast to what is written or said. These situations depend upon the amount of listening that the person (the “receiver”) is doing at the time of contact.

Unfortunately we aren’t always listening or seeing with 100% concentration, even though we might think we are. The lack of concentration results in people “jumping to conclusions” based on what they think they saw or heard, or completing the sentence with their own words or thoughts, which can be totally different from what was said or written.

Bearing in mind these well-known documented facts that we all come across continuously, it is often surprising that evidence is believed from even eye witnesses in court trials!

Stereotyping

Most people learn from their own experiences and run the risk of treating different people as if they were the same i.e. if you’ve met one copper/second hand or double glazing salesman/shop steward/doctor/accountant/teacher you’ve met them all. The problem is that in order to get the messages out over and above standard stereotype one first needs to break the mould. Once broken away from the stereotype one can start to get the message out.

Lack of Knowledge

Communication is always difficult if the person “transmitting” the message and the people who are receiving the message have a different knowledge background, some with a lot mixed in with those with a little. The problem therefore is where to start and the communicator needs to be aware of the discrepancies and take them into account. It is really important not to assume the same levels, because even those people who have driving licenses don’t know the Highway Code to the same depth, even though we should all know it equally well!

Lack of Interest

The levels of concentration, which are directly related to the quality of reception of the information, are linked almost exclusively to the level of interest created by the communicator in the subject being discussed. It is very easy to believe that their interest is the same as ours, when undoubtedly it won’t be. They might be there under duress, suffering from being unwell or in low spirits, things that you will never know. It is therefore crucial for the communicator to raise the “bar” and appeal to the person’s curiousity and needs in a way that is interesting.

Different levels of Self-Expression

The ability to express ourselves even on a one-to-one basis is hard enough but even worse on a group basis. This aspect of communication is obviously very important and can be improved by increasing one’s vocabulary with reading and with careful planning of the presentation. It is also necessary to understand the vocabulary level on the side of the audience i.e. do not use long difficult words or long/complex sentences.

Emotions

Emotions can totally change the interaction and the way communication is received. Any strong emotion will result in only the emotion being transmitted with no information. Some emotion is needed like energy, enthusiasm, vitality and commitment, all aspects of a positive attitude but if there are traces of negative energy like anger, depression, frustration, hurt then probably it is better to leave the information giving to another time.

Personality

The personalities of the other people can have a profound effect on the way communication is given and received. One only has to remember school teachers, headmasters, bullies, people in authority and intimidating looks to see people literally shrivel and dry up. So it is really important to either match the personalities present or not be there in the first place.

Location

Some locations are better than others for presentations and communicating to others. Even simple changes to layout of the room, more or even fewer lights, change of temperature, more space to move around in, or less background noise (turning off the distracting air conditioner/loudspeaker) can make a big difference to the way you as the presenter and the receivers feel.

Jargon/Gobbledygook

We have all experienced the person who seems to speak in forked tongues or another language. The worst are the technical/doctors/accountants/computer people of this world, although all sectors of industry and commerce seem to have their own language. Try and keep the jargon out but if it is needed give some translation as you are going along. There is nothing worse that to start off interested and then to gradually switch off, as the words become stranger and stranger. The best thing is to keep it simple and follow the six “C’s”.

Clear - Concise – Courteous – Constructive – Correct – Complete.